Breguet and Thomire

Abraham-Louis Breguet and Pierre-Philippe Thomire are both justly famous; the first in the field of the watchmaking, the second in the art of ornamental bronze. Both lived in Paris in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Despite the political unrest of the time, both achieved recognition and success, expand ing their activities as orders became more and more plentiful. The two collaborated on twenty clocks which are true masterpieces, both esthetically and technically.

Born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland in 1747 to a middle class family, in 1762 Breguet was sent to Versailles to become a watchmaker’s apprentice.

Fabienne Thiebaud
Art Historian

After his marriage in 1775, he settled in Paris, quai des Morfondus (later quai de l’Horloge). Thomire’s early years are abundantly documented. He was born in Paris on December 5th, 1751, to a family of modest means. His father, Luc Philippe Thomire, was a chaser. Pierre-Philippe received excellent training, studying sculpture in Rome at the academy of Saint Luc under French sculptors Pajou and Houdon. He decided to specialize in chasing and entered the workshop of Pierre Gouthière (1732-1813/14), who worked in the Greek-inspired style popular during the reign of Louis XVI. In 1776, Thomire went into business on his own, eventually becoming the most renowned chaser after his master’s bankruptcy. He worked for Louis Prieur, chaser and gilder to Louis XVI. As Thomire’s reputation grew, he received numerous orders, which appear in the records of the royal garde-meubles, and collaborated with Beneman, Marie-Antoinette’s favorite cabinetmaker. The queen also appreciated Breguet, whom she appointed her official watchmaker.

Like Thomire, Breguet admired the new neoclassical style. He refined and simplified the forms of his watches and clocks, adopted a functional esthetic and invented a new type of hands. As concerns Thomire, he stylized his bronzes and specialized in subjects inspired by antiquity.

In 1783, Thomire succeeded Jean-Claude-Thomas Duplessis at the famous Sèvres porcelain factory, where he excelled in making the bronze moldings of large vases.

One year later, Breguet, who had formerly practiced his craft by special permission, was made Master, thus joining the ranks of the oldest group of watchmakers in Europe, the guild of the "maîtres horlogers de la ville et faubourgs de Paris", founded in 1544. Thomire was a member of the guild of founders and chasers. During the French Revolution, Breguet chose exile in Switzerland due to his ties with the court, but work continued in his Paris workshop under the management of Boulanger. Thomire, however, was forced to suspend his production when his workshop was converted into a factory for arms production. After the Revolutionary upheaval was over, a new and favorable period began for both Breguet and Thomire. Under the Directoire, the Consulate, and the Empire, authority in esthetic fields and official sponsorship were restored. At Napoleon’s wish, the prestigious “expositions des produits de l’industrie” were organized, to encourage artists and artisans and demonstrate France’s superiority in the domains of art and manufacture. At the exhibitions of 1798 and 1802, Breguet was awarded a gold medal. Thomire also received a gold medal in 1806 (the first time such an honor was conferred upon the bronze industry), and in 1809.

Both men received orders from the Emperor and his family, as well as from foreign courts. In order to respond to growing demand, Thomire became first an associate, and then bought the firm of Lignereux, the famous “marchand-mercier” who had been associated with Daguerre. The company took the name of “Thomire-Duterme et Cie”. In his shop at 15 rue Taitbout and workshop at 7 rue Boucherat, he produced and sold numerous decorative objects (clocks, centerpieces and candelabras) of wood and bronze. It was during this period that Breguet called on Thomire to supply him with ornamental bronzes and other horological supplies. For the wedding of the Emperor to Marie-Louise in 1810 Thomire designed a coiffeuse of the Empress; he later also designed the cradle of the roi de Rome. At the time Thomire had over 700 employees.

Both men received many awards and honorary
titles: in 1815 Breguet was named watchmaker of the Royal Marine and member of the Bureau of Longitudes. The next year he became a member of the Académie des sciences and chevalier of the Légion d’honneur. Thomire, who was given the title of chevalier of the Légion d’honneur in 1834, personally retired in 1823, though his company continued until the reign of Louis-Philippe. The house of Breguet still exists today.

Breguet and Thomire began collaborating in the early 19th century. Many clocks had been produced in France since the reign of Louis XV, largely due to the "cheminée à la française" which superseded the huge and imposing fireplaces of the 17th century. The new type of fireplace was surmounted by a mirror and its marble top was often adorned by a clock flanked by candelabras. These fireplaces varied in dimension; accordingly the clocks were produced in varying sizes. Their style evolved parallel to that of the other room furnishings. Until the mid 18th century, the most popular clocks were those called "religieuses" and "Boulle", with cases in copper and pewter marquetry. Gradually bronze came to be used more and more frequently, to the extent that it almost replaced wood. When cast, it could take on all shapes and forms and could be beautified by gilding. It was therefore perfectly suited to the exuberant "rocaille" style of the period, which, in France, would last until the 1750s. It grew out of fashion due to nostalgia for the Louis XIV style, and to the fascination with antiquity inspired by the 1748 discovery of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The new style, called neoclassicism, owed much of its popularity to its having been adopted by Madame de Pompadour and Marie-Antoinette. Thus, the curves of the rocaille style gave way to straight lines, symmetry, and ornaments "à la grecque". During the reign of Louis XVI, the neoclassical style was given a gentle and graceful interpretation, but as the Revolution approached, the lines stiffened and Greco-Roman antiquity came to be imitated in a stricter fashion. This new tendency was a foretaste of the early 19th century style that would be defined by Napoleon’s architects Percier and Fontaine, as well as the painter David. Clocks with figures in patinated or gilt bronze, resting on wooden or marble bases, came to be quite popular throughout Europe. Their forms and inspiration, like those of all other home furnishings, were neoclassical. The demand was great and many artisans were employed in the production of such pieces. In 1819, Count Chaptal, former Minister of the Interior under Napoleon I, declared: "currently, in Paris, there are eight to nine hundred workshops for gilding bronze: counting the founders, turners, chasers, gilders, etc., this art employs no fewer than six thousand workers". It is difficult to know the names of the artisans who worked on such clocks; indeed, one generally only knows the name of the clockmaker who made the movement and signed the dial. Generally, the bronze mountings were purchased from a bronzier. However, few of them – not even Thomire himself regularly signed their bronzes. It is only due to the Breguet archives, which have been carefully conserved to the present day, that some of Breguet’s suppliers have been identified. Thomire collaborated on the creation of the clocks known as "pendules à l’enfant" and "pendules pyramidales". These clocks are truly masterpieces and were entirely hand-finished. It is not surprising, given that they are the work of the best bronzier and the foremost watchmaker of the Empire, that they distinguish themselves from all other clocks made during the period, and were rarely equaled later.

The "pendule à l’enfant"
This clock, of which several examples were made, features a putto kneeling on a round base; the clock movement is supported above his head. This subject was fairly common during the reign of Louis XVI; drum-shaped movements were often either supported in a similar fashion, or accompanied by sphinxes, Cupids, or other putto types, which were sometimes winged, and occasionally featured Cupid’s attributes. One of the most attractive qualities of this clock is its elegance and simplicity.

The enamel dial, lodged in a gilt bronze drum, has Roman numerals and Breguet hands. Its colors contrast with the child, made of black patinated bronze. The child’s left knee is on the ground, while the other is covered by draped material. Its two arms support the movement. The realism of the proportions and the correctness of the pose are admirable. Thomire’s mastery of bronze work and chasing were able to render the softness of the skin, the drapery of the material on the child’s knee, the realism of his features and hair. The result is an appealing and touching work of art.

The "pendules pyramidales"
The name, which appears in the Breguet registers, refers to two types of clock: one which is triangular, and another which features two bronze figures.

The first type of clock was produced with Thomire in 4 examples (Nos. 449, 452, 658, 661). Each one, however, had its own variations, according to Breguet’s wishes; he refused to produce "series". The differences lie in the ornamentations, the bases, the dials, or the compensation balances (gridiron or mercury).

The fact that Breguet included the compensation balance proves that he did not neglect technical excellence even in an extremely decorative clock. It should also be noted that the lavish decoration in no way hinders the object’s function; that is, to indicate the time. The dial, with its Roman numerals and Breguet hands, is indeed very easy to read. It is centrally placed and is not subordinate to the subject, not included in a shield or in the wheel of a chariot, for example, as was frequently the case at the time. The general shape of the clock and the placement of the ornaments were also chosen by Breguet, as is proven by one of his drawings, which is today in the Breguet museum. The black patinated bronze case and the gilt bronze moldings were executed by Thomire and Fontaine in 1810, at the height of the "Empire" style. Fontaine was one of the best founders of the time, but since he did not sign his work, he is virtually unknown today. The present clock is striking for its imposing architectural conception. Its movement is concealed within a rectangular case, which is surmounted by a glazed triangular structure which houses the pendulum. Four feet in the form of turtles support the clock; they in turn rest on a marble base with adjustable feet. One cannot help admiring the beauty and abundance of the gilt bronze ornaments, which stand out strikingly against the black background. The choice of materials, the use of allegorical subjects, their symmetrical placement, are all typical of the "Empire" style. On either side of the dial are two winged male figures representing the spirit of science. This allegorical figure appeared during the Renaissance in Italy. Its wings, its principal attribute, refer to the divine nature of its inspiration. The figure is generally accompanied by objects suggesting its activities, for example a ruler, a compass, a protractor, and an abacus, to indicate the different sciences. The finesse of the details, due to the elegance of line and the excellent finishing are admirable. It should be noted that acanthus leaves are used to unite the various elements; on one side it supports the figures representing the spirit of science and on the other it comes forth out of the jaws of reclining lions, symbols of the Empire’s power. According to tradition, the figures representing the spirit of science are visited by the Muses, who inspire them.

The sides of the present clock are decorated with four female figures wearing antique clothing, and which represent the Muses. They are the Greco-Roman divinities of Arts and Letters, originally three in number, then nine, their principal realms were those of thought and creation. They can be recognized by their attributes, which were determined during the Hellenistic period. On the lower right is Urania, the Muse of Astronomy. She is seated before a sphere and holds a ruler and compass in her left hand, as she looks through her telescope toward the sky. Above her is probably Calliope, the Muse of philosophy, standing on a boundary stone, decorated with a crown of laurel leaves, and holding a rolled parchment. Opposite her is Thalia, the Muse of comedy. Also standing on a boundary stone, she is leaning on a mask. Above her is Clio, the first of the nine Muses, who represents history and epic poetry.

She is represented seated in a gondola-style chair typical of the Empire, and holds a book in her hand. At the summit of the clock is a Gorgon’s head. The Gorgon, fabled monster of Greco-Roman mythology, symbolized the divine. The Gorgon is recognizable for its hair, composed of intertwining snakes, and sometimes has wings, as is the case here. The clock’s structure is emphasized by repetitive frises of raies de cœur and acanthus leaves. Lastly, the flower garlands are reminiscent of the "pompeiian" style popular during the reign of Louis XVI, whereas the palmettes on the summit refer to the Egyptian campaign.

The clocks with two figures, also called "pendules pyramidales", are of an entirely different conception. They feature two figures in black patinated bronze, which are attached by screws to the clock’s case, which in turn rests on a green-veined black marble base with flattened "boule" feet. A brochure published by the Breguet firm around 1822 gives some information regarding the figures: "One of these pieces is embellished with two figures standing on a stylobate: they represent genius and prudence; the first is winged and has a flame above its head; the other, lavishly draped, supports the suspension of a compensatory pendulum which oscillates between the two figures, and serves as regulator to the movement which is lodged in the base; in the middle is the dial. "One might add that their attributes lie at their feet: a ruler, a protractor and a parchment for the génie, and a mirror for the female figure. Like the other clocks, it was made in four examples (N°450, 453, 454, 660); the others have different dials, ornaments, and some are lacking the attributes (see for example clock n°454, in Geneva's Musée d’horlogerie). In comparison with the preceding clock, there are several similarities: the use of the same materials, the highly legible dial, and the use of

Bronze: Materials and Techniques

A drawing is made of the piece to be produced and is enlarged to actual size. The sculptor then makes a wax or clay model that is given over to other workmen, to be cast and chased. Two different methods can be employed for hollow casting: sand-casting, which is generally used for large pieces or bas-reliefs, and lost wax casting, used for smaller pieces or when the forms are complex. This method results in a one-of-a kind piece, which is thin.
Lost wax casting: the model of the piece to be executed can be made in wax, or it can be modeled in clay, dried and then fired. In this case, a uniform layer of wax – which will be replaced by the metal – is applied and a mold is created around the model. Wax sprues and gates are attached to the model to provide pathways for the wax to evacuate the mold and for the molten metal to enter it. Wax vents are also added through which hot gases can rise while the liquid bronze is poured. The mold is then fired at 100°C, the wax melts and escapes by the pathways provided. At this point the molten metal is poured into the mold, taking the place of the melted wax. The perfection of the finished piece depends on the founder’s skill and his ability to determine the correct speed for pouring the bronze into the mold. After cooling, the mold is broken open and the piece is taken out. The vents and gates are removed, and the statue’s surface is smoothed and finished. It is then chased (the metal is indented by means of a chisel); this procedure requires an artist’s eye to create pleasing forms and patterns.
Sand casting: a two-part mold is made, the top half, or "cope", and the bottom half, or "drag". This is done by ma- king two imprints – one of the upper half and one of the lower - of the model to be cast in wet sand. A hole, called the "sprue", is created, through which the molten metal (1200°) is poured into the mold. Then the two sections of the mold are placed one on top of another and the mold is clamped together for drying and consolidating. After casting and cooling, the piece is unmolded, prepared and chased.
Gilding: can be done with gold leaf or with ormolu, or powdered gold. The latter was used for bronzes. The chaser-gilder ground the gold down to a fine powder on a milling stone, then blended it with mercury. The mixture was then heated until a paste was obtained. The paste was applied to the bronze with a brush, the piece was heated over an open flame, and as the mercury evaporated, the gold adhered to the bronze. Mercury vapor being toxic, this process was replaced after 1827 by electroplating. This technique, however, gave results that were less subtle and often too shiny and lacking in nuance. The piece could also be partially burnished with a piece of agate.
Patinas are achieved by means of oxidization or the application of color.

The bronze figures representing genius and prudence by Thomire, from Breguet’s "pendule pyramidale” No. 453.

The "pendule à l’enfant"
Breguet & Fils, No. 2472, sold at
Antiquorum, Geneva in 1997 for
SFr. 41,400

The “pendule pyramidale”
Breguet No. 449,
sold at Antiquorum, Geneva in 2002
for SFr 883,500.

Breguet "pendule pyramidale” No. 453

Breguet’s original drawing of
"pendule pyramidale” No. 453

moldings decorated with frises of fashionable motifs, such as oves, raies de cœur, pearls and acanthus leaves, to emphasize the clock’s structure. The two figures speak eloquently of Thomire’s talent as a sculptor and chaser: the various textures, such as the hair, the wings, or the draperies, are beautifully rendered. The accentuation of the reliefs and the opposition of matte and polished areas, light and shadow, contribute to the realistic effect. Thomire was particularly skilled in matte gilding, invented by his master Gouthière (which consists in polishing only the elements in relief and leaving the rest matte). Added to this are the elegant postures, and the impression that they are holding the clock with grace and ease. As for the preceding clock, Breguet furnished the original drawing.

The collaboration between Breguet and Thomire, in which a master of time was associated with an exceptional bronzier, resulted in the creation of extraordinary horological pieces.

I thank the house of Breguet for having given me permission to consult their archives.

Since the founding of the house of Breguet, each piece produced has been assigned a number and has been entered into registers which have been carefully conserved until the present day. These records afford precious information regarding clocks, from 1792 onward (the preceding registers were unfortunately destroyed during the Revolution).